Political Parties in Asia

Political corruption is a global problem, posing a threat to economic growth, democracy, and political stability in wealthy and poor countries alike. Developing countries and those undergoing a transition from authoritarian rule to democracy, however, are particularly at risk. In Asia, where some countries are still recovering from the economic crisis, political corruption has had a devastating impact on the public’s confidence in political and economic institutions.

During the past few years, corruption scandals have shaken several Asian countries at the highest levels, helping to topple and destabilize governments. In the Philippines, President Joseph Estrada was recently forced from office following allegations of corruption. The Pakistani military justified its 1999 coup d’état on the grounds of rampant corruption within the civilian government. In Indonesia, corruption allegations led to the downfall of President Suharto and later, President Abdurrahman Wahid. Many of the results in the last parliamentary elections in Thailand were nullified due to widespread electoral fraud and vote buying, and the Thai Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra was indicted by the National Counter Corruption Commission for falsely declaring his assets. Even in wealthier and more stable democracies, such as Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, the tremendous influence of money in the political and electoral process has eroded public confidence in government institutions and has undermined the foundations of the democratic system.

Throughout Asia, entrenched corruption has led to public disillusionment in many institutions, but political parties have especially become a target of criticism. Too often, distrust in parties and their leaders on the issue of reform has been justified. Parties have demonstrated little intent in stamping out corruption, promoting accountable governance, and advocating greater transparency in the political system. In particular, the internal practices of parties, specifically regarding fundraising and campaigning, have been criticized. Although there are examples of transparent, policy-oriented parties, in many countries parties also participate in corrupt and illegal activities. As in countries throughout the world, electoral competition requires parties in Asia to raise large amounts of money to raise in order to finance their campaigns, and fundraising practices often circumvent or violate the laws. Also like parties elsewhere, Asian political parties frequently build support through patronage networks, rather than through issue-oriented platforms based on the interests and needs of citizens. Many parties are opaque in their internal operations and undemocratic in their decision-making.

If political parties’ internal practices and procedures are undemocratic and marred by corruption, then national efforts to eradicate corruption and promote good governance will be difficult to achieve. Political parties in Asia, as in the rest of the world, remain a vital ingredient in the democratic process. Democracies rely on parties to offer the electorate choices among competing candidates and alternative policies at election time, and parties are intended to serve the important role of aggregating diffuse social interests. After elections, parties determine and organize the government, and serve as the principle vehicle for placing issues on the public agenda. It will be political parties, acting through the executive and legislative process, that the public must rely upon to design reform measures and oversee their enforcement.

The political will to reform within parties is needed if parties are to play an effective role in national reform efforts. Furthermore, there must be greater public confidence in political parties’ ability to act as agents for change. Despite their obvious shortcomings, parties cannot be viewed merely as part of the problem. They must also be viewed as part of the cure. In addition, whether motivated by a principled commitment to the ideas of good governance, or by more practical considerations of political survival and electoral appeal, reform ranks highly on the agenda of almost every political leader. Concrete steps must now be taken by the parties to earn the public’s trust by ensuring that the rhetoric of political leaders is supported by meaningful action.

At regional and global conferences and forums, experts have increasingly acknowledged the role political parties must play in order to realize effective reform. At the 10^th international Anti-Corruption Conference (IACC) held in Prague in October 2001, for example, closing speakers listed political party accountability as one of the top three areas for suture action. Despite this increased commitment to addressing political parties in anti-corruption efforts, ironically, parties have still been largely left out of the reform debate. Few programs, if any, have been developed to work with parties, as organizations seem to prefer instead to promote policy prescriptions, bureaucratic reform, independent watchdog bodies, and civil society and media activities.

For these reasons, in March 2001, the National Democratic institute for international Affairs (NDI) and the Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats (CALD), a coalition of political parties in Asia, launched a program in Asia on Political Party Strategies to Combat Corruption. Its purpose is to support political parties in their efforts to implement internal reforms through enhanced democracy, accountability, and transparency in party structures and practices. In addition, the program explores the challenges facing parties with respect to party financing, national legislation and regulations, and evolving public expectations, and aims to help parties participate in the formation of national reform initiatives.

In the first stage of this program, NDI and CALD conducted research to identify existing strategies and mechanism parties are employing to limit opportunities for corruption, whether voluntarily adapted or mandated by external legislation. This research took place in eight countries: Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Philippines, South Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand. NDI and CALD first examined the external environment in which parties function, including the country’s transition to democracy, current political climate, governance and electoral systems, and problems with political corruption. In particular, NDI and CALD studied the legislation and institutions governing political parties, elections, and political finance.

Most importantly, however, the research focused on internal political party reform. The political parties in the study generously shared various strategies they have used to promote greater internal democracy, accountability, and transparency in their decision-making processes, candidate and leadership selection, financial management and fund-raising practices, and ethical criteria and disciplinary procedures. Parties described reforms such as formulating codes of conduct, adopting mandatory disclosure requirements, conducting financial audits, establishing independent monitoring and disciplinary committees, implementing training and ethical educational programs, and enacting term limits for party leaders.

Following the research, the program brought together 28 Asian political party representatives in Bangkok in January 2002 to discuss their experiences in democratic development and build upon the reform strategies identified in the research. The workshop provided an opportunity for parties, in some cases fierce political competitors, to at least temporarily lay aside partisan interests and share perspectives on the common challenges they confront. The parties represented some of the oldest in Asia, such as the Kuomintang of Taiwan, as well as some of the newest, such as Kaedilan Party of Malaysia. They also represented great diversity in their financial conditions, ideologies, and levels of organizational development.

This book presents the research findings, with the objective of providing comparative information on party practices in order to aid party reform efforts. The party strategies and practices described in this study emerged from a review of party documents and discussions with party representatives, and the accounts of party reform initiatives, therefore, largely reflect the parties’ perspectives.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I.     FORWORD

       Corazon C. Aquino

II.    PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

       Kenneth Wollack and Peter M. Manikas

Iii.   introduction

       Laura L. Thornton

IV.   cambodia

       David Kovick and Laura L. Thornton

V.    INDONESIA

       Peter M. Manikas and Dawn Emling

VI.   MALAYSIA

       Laura L. Thornton

VII.  NEPAL

       Mark Wallem and Ram Guragain

VIII. PHILIPPINES

       Celito Arlegue and John Joseph S. Coronel

IX.   SOUTH KOREA

       Laura L. Thornton and David Kovick

X.    TAIWAN

       David Kovick

XI.   THAILAND

       Laura L. Thornton

XII.  CONTRIBUTORS

 F